Clomiphene (syn; Clomid , Serophene) is by far the most widely prescribed agent for the induction of human ovulation for women who do not ovulate, those with dysfunctional ovulation and women with ”unexplained” infertility. When used in young women (who have adequate ovarian reserve) with these problems the viable pregnancy rate is reported as being between 6% and 10% per cycle of treatment. Aside from conventional ovulation induction, clomiphene has been used in preparing women for intrauterine insemination and even for IVF. I personally rarely prescribe clomiphene because across the board, success rates are significantly lower than when gonadotropin therapy is used. The main reasons for clomiphene’s popularity is its low cost, simplicity of use and the low risk of dangerous complications such as severe ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS).

Clomiphene treatment can be initiated at a dose of 50 mg (orally) daily for 5 days but it can be increased to as much as 200mg per day, starting on cycle 2, 3, 4, or 5. A spontaneous LH surge will usually follow within about 8-9 days of the last 50mg dosage. In some cases, 10,000U of hCG can be given as a trigger when there is at least one ovarian follicle of 18-20 mm in size. Routinely using the hCG trigger does tend to decrease pregnancy potential.

Clomiphene works by inducing ovulation through its “antiestrogen effect” which, by blocking estrogen receptors in an area of the brain known as the hypothalamus, tricks the brain into “thinking” that estrogen levels are low. In response, the hypothalamus prompts the pituitary gland to release an exaggerated amount of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which in turn stimulates the growth and development of ovarian follicles, ultimately resulting in a surge in the release of pituitary LH. About 38-42 hours later, ovulation occurs from one or more of the larger follicles. As the follicles grow, they release more and more estrogen into the bloodstream, thus closing the feedback circle that the hypothalamus initiated in response to the anti-estrogen properties of Clomiphene.

There are several factors that need to be considered carefully before deciding to prescribe clomiphene to any woman:

• Clomiphene citrate therapy is less effective than gonadotropin therapy and its efficacy declines with advancing age: Many infertile couples undergoing ovulation induction believe that the success rate using clomiphene citrate is equivalent to what we see in fertile couples trying to get pregnant on their own and to what is encountered when gonadotropins (Menopur/Follistim/Gonal-F and Puregon) are used. This is not the case. The truth is that the rate of conception with clomiphene therapy is actually about 30% lower than the natural fertility rate for normally ovulating women, and about 25% lower than when gonadotropin stimulation is used for ovarian stimulation in similar patients. Moreover, the discrepancy is further magnified with advancing maternal age, where in women under 35 years, the pregnancy rate with clomiphene treatment is about 10% per cycle, about 5% between 35 and 40 years and <2% for women in their early to mid-forties.
• Clomiphene use should ideally be confined to younger women: Ideally the use of clomiphene should in my opinion be restricted to younger women (under 35 years) who have normal “ovarian reserve” (as assessed by basal blood FSH, and antimullerian hormone (AMH) levels). These are the women who are most likely to respond by producing multiple follicles. It is necessary that at least 3 sizeable follicles (>15mm) develop on clomiphene treatment, in order to override the “anti-estrogenic” effects of this drug and so insure adequate cervical mucus production as well as the development of a receptive endometrium.
• Clomiphene should usually not be administered for more than 3 consecutive (back-to- back) cycles: If used back-to-back for more than 3 consecutive cycles, clomiphene is not only ineffective, but actually starts to function as a “relative” contraceptive! This is often is a shocking revelation to many women. Clomiphene’s anti-estrogenic effect is not confined to the hypothalamus. Any cells that have a high concentration of estrogen receptors will also be so affected. Needless to say, the cervical glands (that produce estrogenic mucus to facilitate sperm transport and the endometrial lining (endometrium) that thickens under the effect of estrogen are also highly vulnerable to a buildup of antiestrogen effects over successive back-to back cycles of clomiphene therapy. This why with >3 consecutive back-to back clomiphene cycles cervical mucus tends to thicken and dry up and the endometrium will thin, seriously reducing the likelihood of success. These anti-estrogenic manifestations require that following 3 back-to back clomiphene cycles of stimulation there be at  least 1 resting (non-clomiphene treated) cycle, before doing a 4^th cycle.
• Clomiphene should not be used in older women or in women who have diminished ovarian reserve (DOR): With clomiphene stimulation, the  release of pituitary FSH is always accompanied by the concomitant release of Luteinizing Hormone (LH). LH causes the ovary to produce male hormone (androgens) and testosterone. The production by the ovaries of a modest amount of testosterone would not present a problem. However, an excessive production of ovarian testosterone prejudices egg development and thus ultimately compromises embryo competency. Older women and women with DOR are the most vulnerable because they tend to have overgrowth of ovarian connective tissue (stroma/theca) which is the site where androgens are produced. The concentration of androgens is always much higher at the site of production (the ovaries) than in the peripheral blood (a dilution effect). Thus in older women and those with DOR, there will be excessive ovarian androgens that can compromise egg quality and thus ultimately reduce the chance of having a baby. The older the woman and/or the more severe the DOR, the greater this adverse effect is likely to be.
• “Trapped” ovulation (LUF-Syndrome): About 20% of clomiphene cycles are associated with “trapped” ovulation (Luteinized Unruptured Follicle (LUF) Syndrome). This means that in spite of hormone changes suggesting that ovulation has occurred, the egg remains trapped in the ovary. Obviously this is not condusive to the establishment of a successful pregnancy.
• Endometriosis is a “relative contraindication” to the use of clomiphene: Women with endometriosis (regardless of its severity) have” toxic factors” in their pelvic peritoneal fluid. Eggs, as they pass from the ovaries to the Fallopian tubes to reach the awaiting sperm, become exposed to these “toxins” which renders the egg envelopment (zona pellucida) resistant to sperm penetration. This reduces fertilization potential by a factor of at least 3 or 4. This means that if, in the absence of endometriosis, an egg has a 15% chance of being fertilized and thereupon resulting in a baby, that same egg, in a woman with endometriosis would have no more than a 5% chance. Thus, if the overall chance of a having a baby per year of actively trying is about 12% then the chance in a woman with mild endometriosis (of the same age) would probably be no more than 3-4%. This serves to explain why normally ovulating women with endometriosis and patent Fallopian tubes do not benefit significantly from intrauterine insemination, with or without the use of fertility drugs, or from surgery to remove endometriotic lesions (since many endometriotic deposits are non-pigmented, thus invisible to the naked eye and cannot be removed surgically). Only IVF improves the chance of a baby per month of trying.  Simply put…if a normally ovulating woman who has mild to moderate endometriosis conceives following IUI, surgery, or the use of fertility drugs, it is probably in spite of (rather than due) to such treatment.
• Women with long gaps between menstruation are often not ideal candidates for clomiphene: Women who consistently have  >45 days between their periods will not respond well to clomiphene induction of ovulation and are better off going directly to injectable gonadotropins.
• Multiple pregnancy: The incidence of multiple pregnancies with clomiphene induction of ovulation is about 5%. This is much lower than the 25% rate encountered when gonadotropins are given to women with absent or dysfunctional ovulation.

Clomiphene therapy is often used as a first line approach to inducing ovulation in women with irregular or absent ovulation such as in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). Its use in my opinion is best confined to women who menstruate/ovulate irregularly (but who bleed at least every 45 days), younger women, women who do not have tubal disease or endometriosis, women under 40 years of age (preferably <35Y), and women who do not have DOR . It should also be avoided when there is co-existing male factor infertility.  If pregnancy fails to occur after 3 consecutive cycles of clomiphene therapy, then in my opinion, it is time to move on to gonadotropin therapy, combined with IUI or IVF/ICSI depending on the underlying cause of the infertility.

 Geoff Sher

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

I am attaching online links to two E-books which I recently  co-authored with  my partner at SFS-NY  (Drew Tortoriello MD)……. for your reading pleasure:

1.From In Vitro Fertilization to Family: A Journey with Sher Fertility Solutions (SFS) “

http://sherfertilitysolutions.com/sher-fertility-solutions-ebook.pdf

1. “Recurrent Pregnancy Loss and Unexplained IVF Failure: The Immunologic Link

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iYKz-EkAjMqwMa1ZcufIloRdxnAfDH8L/view

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

I am attaching online links to two E-books which I recently  co-authored with  my partner at SFS-NY  (Drew Tortoriello MD)……. for your reading pleasure:

1.From In Vitro Fertilization to Family: A Journey with Sher Fertility Solutions (SFS) “

http://sherfertilitysolutions.com/sher-fertility-solutions-ebook.pdf

1. “Recurrent Pregnancy Loss and Unexplained IVF Failure: The Immunologic Link

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iYKz-EkAjMqwMa1ZcufIloRdxnAfDH8L/view

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Respectfully!

I personally would not perform a SNH during a cycle of FET!

Geoff Sher

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

I am attaching online links to two E-books which I recently  co-authored with  my partner at SFS-NY  (Drew Tortoriello MD)……. for your reading pleasure:

1.From In Vitro Fertilization to Family: A Journey with Sher Fertility Solutions (SFS) “

http://sherfertilitysolutions.com/sher-fertility-solutions-ebook.pdf

1. “Recurrent Pregnancy Loss and Unexplained IVF Failure: The Immunologic Link

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iYKz-EkAjMqwMa1ZcufIloRdxnAfDH8L/view

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With sperm antibodies, IUI is really not a tangible option. You need IVF/ICSI.

Antisperm antibodies (ASA) are immunoglobulins that attach to sperm. They are most commonly encountered in semen, blood, cervical mucous and follicular fluid. Not all ASA bind to sperm. However, those that do so can inhibiting fertilization. Methods used to detect for the presence of SAs in blood, in the seminal plasma of the ejaculate or in the cervical mucus only measure those immunoglobulins that bind to sperm components.

ASAs are related to the stimulation of sperm antigen. Detection of ASA requires access to standard sperm antigens that are associated with fertilization. An ideal sperm antigen should be sperm specific, accessible to the antibody and play a key role in fertilization..

In about 1-4% of infertility cases the presence of antisperm antibodies (ASA) in the male or female appear to be the cause. While the presence of ASA reduces both male and fertility significantly, it does not necessarily always prevent conception altogether.  Rather, the effects are graduated; i.e., the larger the immunologic response (concentration of antibodies), the less likely it is that a pregnancy will occur and when the blood level rises above 40%, natural conception is highly unlikely to occur.

Like any other kind of antibody manufactured by the body, sperm antibodies are formed in response to antigens.  These antigens are proteins, which appear on the outer sperm membranes as the young sperm cells, develop within the male testes. In the man’s own body, his sperm are regarded as foreign invading proteins and as such would normally be targeted for attack However, under normal conditions, direct contact between the man’s blood and sperm is prevented by a cellular structure in the testes called the blood/testis barrier.  This barrier is formed by so-called, Sertoli cells, which abut very closely against each other, forming tight junctions that separate the developing sperm cells from the blood and prevent immunologic stimulation.  However, the blood/ testis barrier can be broken by physical or chemical injury or by infection.  When this barrier is breached, sperm antigens escape from their immunologically protected environment and come in direct contact with blood elements that launch an immunologic attack.

Once sperm and blood come in contact, whether in the male or female, specific antibodies are produced against them by specialized blood cells call T- and B-lymphocytes.  The three main types of sperm antibodies produced are Immunoglobulin G (IgG), Immunoglobulin A (IgA) and Immunoglobulin M (IgM).  These antibodies bind to the proteins (antigens) on the sperm head, midpiece or tail.  The antibodies formed may be of the circulatory type (in the blood serum) or secretory type (in the tissue).  This is important because high levels of antibodies in the blood serum do not invariably mean that the antibodies will find their way to the semen where they can affect the sperm.  For example, the concentration of IgG is much lower in secretions of the reproductive tract that it is in the blood.  Conversely, the local level of IgA is higher in the reproductive secretions than in the blood.  This is an important point, which we will return to later.

Once sperm antibodies have formed, they can affect sperm in several different ways.  Some antibodies will cause sperm to stick together or agglutinate.  Agglutinated sperm clump together in dense masses and thus are unable to migrate through the cervix into the uterus.  Other antibodies mark the sperm for attack by Natural killer (NK) cells of the body’s immune system (ie; opsonizing antibodies).  Some antibodies cause reactions between the sperm membrane and the cervical mucus preventing the sperm from swimming through the cervix (ie; immobilizing antibodies).  Antibodies can also block the sperm’s ability to bind to the zona pellucida of the egg, a prerequisite for fertilization (ie; blocking antibodies).  Finally, there is recent evidence that the fertilized egg shares some of the same antigens that are found on the sperm.  It is possible that sperm antibodies present in the mother can react with the early embryo, resulting in its destruction by phagocytic (ie; phagocytic antibodies) cells.

In my opinion, ASA tests are best performed on blood. There are a number of diagnostic tests available to detect the presence of sperm antibodies.  There are several methods for the diagnosis These tests are performed by flow cytometry and the ELISA (enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay), the Franklin-Dukes sperm agglutination assay or the Immunobead Binding Test (IBT).the  indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) assay, to name a few. My preference is the IBT.

In the male, IgA and IgG are found in the semen although there is controversy as to whether they originate locally (secreted by testicular cells) or cross over from the circulation.  Antibodies of the IgM class are not found in semen.

Like the source of some antibodies, the question of the critical levels of sperm antibodies is also hotly debated among clinicians.  There seems to be general agreement that blood levels above 30% by the IBT are associated with significant fertility problems.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

I am attaching online links to two E-books which I recently  co-authored with  my partner at SFS-NY  (Drew Tortoriello MD)……. for your reading pleasure:

1.From In Vitro Fertilization to Family: A Journey with Sher Fertility Solutions (SFS) “

http://sherfertilitysolutions.com/sher-fertility-solutions-ebook.pdf

1. “Recurrent Pregnancy Loss and Unexplained IVF Failure: The Immunologic Link

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iYKz-EkAjMqwMa1ZcufIloRdxnAfDH8L/view

Studiers have shown that pregnancy is highly unlikely following natural intercourse or intrauterine insemination when either the woman or the man harbors significant antisperm antibodies.

Attempts have to try and remove antibodies from sperm by allowing the sperm to swim through a column of beads are by and large unsuccessful. And, while there have been isolated reports that administration of corticosteroids (eg; prednisone) will temporarily suppress antibody production pregnancy rates are poor. Besides, corticosteroid therapy carries with it the risk of significant side, some of which (although infrequent) can be serious. As an example, in the man spontaneous fractures (especially of the neck of the femur) have been reported in 2 % of cases. I do not recommend this treatment.

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) with intracytoplasmic Sperm injection (ICSI) is the best option. Here each egg is injected with a single sperm and whether there are antibodies attached to the outer surface of the sperm becomes irrelevant.. In fact, pregnancy and birth rates are the same as in cases where IVF is performed for reasons other than male factor infertility. IVF/ICSI success rates are also .not unaffected by the concentration of antisperm antibodies.

Frequently, when following vigorous and often repeated flushing of follicles at egg retrieval they fail to yield eggs, it is ascribed to “Empty Follicle Syndrome.” This is a gross misnomer, because all follicles contain eggs. So why were no eggs retrieved from the follicles? Most likely it was because they would/could not yield the eggs they harbored.

This situation is most commonly seen in older women, women who have severely diminished ovarian reserve, and in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). In my opinion it is often preventable when an optimal, individualized and strategic protocol for controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) is employed and the correct timing and dosage is applied to the “hCG trigger shot.”

Normally, following optimal ovarian stimulation, the hCG “trigger shot” is given for the purpose of it triggering meiosis (reproductive division) that is intended to halve the number of chromosomes from 46 to 23 within 32-36 hours. The hCG trigger also enables the egg to signal the “cumulus cells” that bind it firmly to the inner wall of the follicle (through enzymatic activity), to loosen or disperse, so that the egg can detach and readily be captured at egg retrieval (ER).

Ordinarily, normal eggs (and even those with only one or two chromosomal irregularities) will readily detach and be captured with the very first attempt to empty a follicle. Eggs that have several chromosomal numerical abnormalities (i.e., are “complex aneuploid”) are often unable to facilitate this process. This explains why when the egg is complex aneuploid, its follicle will not yield an egg…and why, when it requires repeated flushing of a follicle to harvest an egg, it is highly suggestive of it being aneuploid and thus “incompetent” (i.e., incapable of subsequently propagating a normal embryo).

Older women, women with diminished ovarian reserve, and those with polycystic ovarian syndrome, tend to have more biologically active LH in circulation. LH causes production of male hormone (androgens, predominantly testosterone), by ovarian connective tissue (stroma/theca). A little testosterone is needed for optimal follicle development and for FSH-induced ovogenesis (egg development). Too much LH activity compromises the latter, and eggs so affected are far more likely to be aneuploid following meiosis.

Women with the above conditions have increased LH activity and are thus more likely to produce excessive ovarian testosterone. It follows that sustained, premature elevations in LH or premature luteinization (often referred to as a “premature LH surge”) will prejudice egg development. Such compromised eggs are much more likely to end up being complex aneuploid following the administration of the hCG trigger, leading to fruitless attempts at retrieval and the so called “empty follicle syndrome.”

The developing eggs of women who have increased LH activity (older women, women with diminished ovarian reserve, and those with PCOS) are inordinately vulnerable to the effects of protracted exposure to LH-induced ovarian testosterone. Because of this, the administration of medications that provoke further pituitary LH release (e.g., clomiphene and Letrozole), drugs that contain LH or hCG (e.g., Menopur), or protocols of ovarian stimulation that provoke increased exposure to the woman’s own pituitary LH (e.g., “flare-agonist protocols”) and the use of “late pituitary blockade” (antagonist) protocols can be prejudicial.

The importance of individualizing COS protocol selection, precision with regard to the dosage and type of hCG trigger used, and the timing of its administration in such cases cannot be overstated. The ideal dosage of urinary-derived hCG (hCG-u) such as Novarel, Pregnyl and Profasi is 10,000U. When recombinant DNA-derived hCG (hCG-r) such as Ovidrel is used, the optimal dosage is 500mcg. A lower dosage of hCG can, by compromising meiosis, increase the risk of egg aneuploidy, and thus of IVF outcome.

There is in my opinion no such condition as “Empty Follicle Syndrome.” All follicles contain eggs. Failure to access those eggs at ER can often be a result of the protocol used for controlled ovarian stimulation.

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ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

I am attaching online links to two E-books which I recently  co-authored with  my partner at SFS-NY  (Drew Tortoriello MD)……. for your reading pleasure:

1.From In Vitro Fertilization to Family: A Journey with Sher Fertility Solutions (SFS) “

http://sherfertilitysolutions.com/sher-fertility-solutions-ebook.pdf

1. “Recurrent Pregnancy Loss and Unexplained IVF Failure: The Immunologic Link

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iYKz-EkAjMqwMa1ZcufIloRdxnAfDH8L/view

Ever since January 1993 when a study was reported by researchers at Stanford University suggesting that the use of fertility agents increased the risk of ovarian cancer, there has been tremendous concern and anxiety among women who use fertility drugs. At first the findings seemed well founded because intuitively it made biological sense that fertility drugs might promote cancer because they increase the number of ovulations a woman has. And so the studies received wide public attention. It subsequently turned out that this study which was based on, data compiled from 12 retrospective studies on ovarian cancer patients done in the late seventies and early eighties was seriously flawed for the following reasons:

• While, retrospective (trohoc) studies have value in identifying an area of relevance for subsequent evaluation they are inadequate for reaching definitive conclusions. The only valid way to conclusively determine whether there is a link between prior use of fertility drugs and ovarian cancer would be through prospectively controlled statistical studies that compare the risk of ovarian cancer in infertile women who undergo ovarian stimulation with infertile women who do not.
• Infertile women who spend more than five years trying to conceive have about a 3 times higher risk for ovarian cancer than do fertile women. This is especially true when the infertility is due to absent or dysfunctional ovulation. Prior to the 90’s when the era of ovulation induction for intrauterine insemination (IUI) and IVF began to take off , the commonest indication for the use of fertility drugs was to induce  ovulation in women who were not ovulating at all or normally. That all changed as more and more normally ovulating women started having IUI and IVF. Today, in 1st world countries, the number of normally ovulating women who receive fertility drugs exceeds those who receive such treatment because of absent or abnormal ovulation.  Thus the emphasis has changed dramatically and with it, the risk of ovarian cancer has declined commensurately.
• Animal studies suggest that in contrast to gonadotropins, clomiphene citrate might after long and sustained usage, be carcinogenic. Since the 1993 Stanford University study data was derived at a time when most women undergoing COH were receiving clomiphene citrate (rather than gonadotropins), the possibility exists that the higher incidence of ovarian cancer  might at least in part be due to this factor.
• The 1993 report did not take into account that pregnancy itself has a protective effect against the development of ovarian cancer. This means that those women who in fact conceived following the use of fertility drugs might through the occurrence of pregnancy have reduced their risk of subsequently getting ovarian cancer.

Most important is the fact that several large prospective studies have now refuted the existence of a link between the use of gonadotropins and ovarian cancer. On the other hand, there does appear to be an association between ovarian cancer and certain causes of infertility itself, such as endometriosis.

While the case is still out with regard to whether or not in humans the prolonged and repeated use of clomiphene citrate increases the risk of ovarian cancer, when it comes to the use of gonadotropins for controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) women can in my opinion, breathe easy.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

I am attaching online links to two E-books which I recently  co-authored with  my partner at SFS-NY  (Drew Tortoriello MD)……. for your reading pleasure:

1.From In Vitro Fertilization to Family: A Journey with Sher Fertility Solutions (SFS) “

http://sherfertilitysolutions.com/sher-fertility-solutions-ebook.pdf

1. “Recurrent Pregnancy Loss and Unexplained IVF Failure: The Immunologic Link

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iYKz-EkAjMqwMa1ZcufIloRdxnAfDH8L/view

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